Table 1  Results of seemingly unrelated regressions without and with interactions between school modality and race/ethnicity

Race

(Reference: White)

 Black

– 0.127 (0.275)

0.645

– 0.164 (0.247)

0.507

0.435 (0.562)

0.439

0.728 (0.503)

0.147

 Latino

0.112 (0.237)

0.638

0.459* (0.213)

0.031

0.596 (0.428)

0.164

0.967* (0.383)

0.012

 Other

– 0.157 (0.291)

0.588

– 0.04 (0.261)

0.877

0.253 (0.651)

0.698

– 0.166 (0.582)

0.776

School modality 

(Reference: In-person learning)

 Fully online

– 0.338 (0.22)

0.124

0.079 (0.198)

0.690

0.121 (0.287)

0.674

0.554* (0.256)

0.031

 Hybrid

0.333 (0.238)

0.161

0.504* (0.213)

0.018

0.328 (0.303)

0.279

0.401 (0.27)

0.138

 Home-schooled

0.005 (0.359)

0.989

0.295 (0.322)

0.359

0.297 (0.474)

0.530

0.809 (0.423)

0.056

Fully online interaction

 Black

– 1.364* (0.667)

0.041

– 1.647** (0.596)

0.006

 Latino

– 0.998 (0.54)

0.065

– 0.982* (0.483)

0.042

 Other

– 0.412 (0.809)

0.610

– 0.199 (0.723)

0.783

Hybrid interaction

 Black

0.185 (0.759)

0.807

– 0.249 (0.679)

0.714

 Latino

– 0.182 (0.603)

0.763

– 0.127 (0.539)

0.814

 Other

– 0.451 (0.795)

0.571

0.627 (0.711)

0.378

Home-schooled interaction

 Black

– 0.326 (0.944)

0.730

– 1.186 (0.844)

0.160

 Latino

– 1.107 (0.972)

0.255

– 1.61 (0.869)

0.064

 Other

– 2.369 (1.547)

0.126

– 1.737 (1.383)

0.209

Female sex

0.909*** (0.172)

0.000

0.569*** (0.154)

0.000

0.923*** (0.172)

0.000

0.564*** (0.154)

0.000

Age > 15 y vs. < 15 y

0.203 (0.173)

0.241

– 0.412 (0.155)

0.790

0.192 (0.173)

0.268

– 0.068 (0.155)

0.661

Metro area vs. Rural area

– 0.157 (0.238)

0.509

– 0.043 (0.214)

0.841

– 0.179 (0.237)

0.449

– 0.081 (0.212)

0.702

Access to broadband internet

0.166 (0.289)

0.566

– 0.073 (0.259)

0.777

0.184 (0.287)

0.520

– 0.032 (0.256)

0.902

Annual household income 

(Reference: < $30,000)

 $30,000 to under $60,000

0.365 (0.253)

0.150

0.308 (0.227)

0.176

0.359 (0.251)

0.152

0.325 (0.224)

0.147

 $60,000 to $100,000

0.358 (0.265)

0.176

0.456 (0.237)

0.055

0.312 (0.265)

0.239

0.424 (0.236)

0.073

 $100,000 or more

0.093 (0.271)

0.732

0.021 (0.243)

0.931

0.4 (0.272)

0.883

0.016 (0.243)

0.948

Household size

0.035 (0.756)

0.644

-0.003 (0.068)

0.971

0.067 (0.076)

0.380

0.029 (0.068)

0.670

Geographic region 

(Reference: Midwest)

 Mid-Atlantic

– 0.182 (0.554)

0.742

– 0.231 (0.497)

0.642

– 0.276 (0.55)

0.616

– 0.326 (0.492)

0.508

 East North Central

– 0.426 (0.521)

0.413

– 0.212 (0.467)

0.649

– 0.428 (0.517)

0.408

– 0.239 (0.462)

0.605

 West North Central

0.112 (0.561)

0.842

0.089 (0.503)

0.860

0.021 (0.557)

0.969

– 0.056 (0.498)

0.910

 South Atlantic

– 0.322 (0.519)

0.535

– 0.331 (0.466)

0.477

– 0.397 (0.516)

0.441

– 0.417 (0.462)

0.366

 East South Central

– 0.441 (0.584)

0.449

– 0.625 (0.524)

0.232

– 0.609 (0.581)

0.295

– 0.798 (0.519)

0.125

 West South Central

– 0.588 (0.557)

0.291

– 0.339 (0.499)

0.497

– 0.743 (0.554)

0.180

– 0.499 (0.495)

0.313

 Mountain

– 0.509 (0.555)

0.358

– 0.426 (0.498)

0.392

– 0.582 (0.549)

0.290

– 0.522 (0.491)

0.288

 Pacific

– 0.191 (0.534)

0.721

– 0.217 (0.479)

0.650

– 0.202 (0.531)

0.704

– 0.279 (0.475)

0.555

Daily hours spent in direct messaging

0.289*** (0.065)

0.000

0.243*** (0.058)

0.000

0.287*** (0.065)

0.000

0.246*** (0.058)

0.000

Intercept

 2.405** (0.737)

0.001

2.571*** (0.661)

0.000

2.204** (0.738)

0.003

2.361*** (0.659)

0.000

R-squared

0.132

0.115

0.153

0.143