Fig. 1

Structural equation modeling diagram for adolescents in the entire sample. The observed variables for maternal and paternal harsh parenting were derived directly from their original items. The three dimensions of school connectedness (i.e., teacher support, peer support, and school belongingness) served as observed variables. For the remaining constructs, three observed variables were created using the factor balancing method based on the factor loadings of each item. HP = harsh parenting. Standardized regression coefficients were reported. ^*p < 0.05, ^**p < 0.01, ^***p < 0.001