Fig. 5

Decision curve analysis (DCA) for the training dataset (left) and validation dataset (right), demonstrating the net clinical benefit of the nomogram model across different risk thresholds. The “Nomogram model” curve represents the net benefit of using the proposed predictive model, while the “All” and “None” curves represent the strategies of treating all individuals as high risk or none as high risk, respectively. The higher net benefit of the “Nomogram model” across a wide range of risk thresholds suggests its clinical utility in identifying high-risk individuals more effectively than the alternative strategies